Abstract We carried out an exploratory study of the association between exposure to violence, intelligence, and executive functions in Brazilian preadolescents. The study included 56 participants (31 males) aged 8 to 14 years old (mean = 11.3, SD = 1.0). We administered neuropsychological tests to evaluate executive functions and the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ) to evaluate exposure to violence. We used the following neuropsychological instruments: Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI), Stroop Color-Word Interference task, digits subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and an N-back task. We generated a composite score from neuropsychological test scores and investigated the association of that score, and individual test scores, with exposure to violence and socioeconomic status (SES). Results suggest, first, that exposure to violence is associated with a 0.5-point lower intelligence quotient score for every reported victimization event in the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire. Results also show that the digits backward subtest scores showed a significant negative correlation with exposure to violence (JVQ; rho = -0.29, p < 0.05); both analyses were adjusted for the level of schooling of parents or guardians, which was also found to be significantly associated with lower intelligence quotient scores. We discuss results in the light of the existing literature on the effects of exposure to violence on adolescent development, and the amounting evidence that suggests an association of exposure to violence, and of victimization, with tests that evaluate constructs of executive functions. The study struggled with low compliance from participants, and we underscore the challenges of carrying out empirical studies aimed at better understanding the development of underrepresented youths, such as those from Central and Latin America.

Resumo Objetivo Investigar validade e fidedignidade de uma escala de rastreio para dislexia do desenvolvimento (DD) no ensino fundamental preenchida por professores. Método Avaliação empírica - 12 professores responderam a Escala de Leitura e Escrita (ELE) sobre 95 alunos de 3º ano do ensino fundamental, em dois momentos; os escolares realizaram testes de leitura e escrita (variáveis externas) para investigar a correlação entre a escala e o desempenho dos mesmos. Realizaram-se (1) análise fatorial, (2) avaliação da consistência interna, (3) investigação da relação entre um item da escala e o construto medido por teoria da resposta ao item (TRI) (4) correlação da escala com variáveis externas (Validade Convergente-VC); e (5) investigação da estabilidade temporal da avaliação. Resultados (1) a escala avalia um único fator; (2) o coeficiente alpha apontou que os itens são bons indicadores do construto; (3) a análise por TRI mostra que todos os itens foram monotônicos, indicando que um único construto determina a variabilidade (4) a correlação de Spearman foi moderada (11/17 itens), apontando a existência de VC; (5) o valor da correlação do coeficiente de estabilidade temporal indica que o resultado da ELE não varia de maneira significativa no tempo; (6) nove crianças obtiveram pontuações que sugerem encaminhamento para uma avaliação diagnóstica devido ao grau de dificuldade apresentado. Conclusão O estudo mostra evidências empíricas de validade e fidedignidade da ELE para rastreio de risco de DD. A porcentagem de crianças com suspeita de DD (aproximadamente 9%) corrobora a literatura internacional sobre prevalência de dislexia.

Abstract Purpose To investigate the empirical validity and reliability of a screener for risk of developmental dyslexia (DD) by elementary school teachers. Methods The scale was tested with 12 teachers who answered questions about their students (95 students total, all in the third year of elementary school); the students, in turn, performed reading and writing tasks which were used to investigate the association between screening scores and performance. The following analyses were carried out: (1) factor analysis; (2) internal consistency; (3) relationship between each scale item and the construct of interest, as measured by item response theory (IRT); (4) correlation of each scale item with external variables (reading and writing tests); and (5) the temporal stability of teachers’ evaluations. Results The analyses showed: (1) one factor was extracted; (2) strong internal consistency – the items in the scale are good indicators for screening of this construct; (3) items were monotonic (IRT), i.e., item variability is associated with one construct; (4) moderate Spearman correlation (11/17 items); (5) temporal stability – the result of screening did not vary over time. Conclusion This study shows evidence of validity and reliability of the proposed scale in its intended use of screening for developmental dyslexia. The percentage of children at risk for developmental dyslexia, according to the scale, was approximately 9%, which is in agreement with the international literature on the prevalence of dyslexia.

Abstract Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice and manipulate language sounds in their base form (phonemes). It is associated with emerging literacy skills and predictive of skilled reading. The aim of the present study was to investigate phonemic awareness in German and its association with speaking a German-origin, but predominantly unwritten language. We investigated speakers of Hunsrückisch, a Brazilian minority language predominantly used in its spoken form. Participants were literate Brazilian Portuguese speakers who spoke Hunsrückisch and German or Hunsrückisch only. The results show faster, more accurate performance in the phonemic awareness task among participants who spoke Hunsrückisch and German, relative to those who spoke Hunsrückisch only. Participants who spoke Hunsrückisch only were able to perform the phonemic awareness tasks, but having learned to read and write in German allowed for faster, more accurate performance, especially in relation to pseudowords.

RESUMO Objetivos: Apresentar um relato sobre o desenvolvimento da linguagem no cérebro com as novas informações sobre função cerebral obtidas na neurociência cognitiva. Com o uso das evidências obtidas de imagens cerebrais não invasivas em face da predição, o relato vai além da descrição da associação entre linguagem e áreas específicas do cérebro e defende a importância e a possibilidade de predizer os resultados de linguagem por meio de dados de imagens cerebrais. E tratar das evidências atuais sobre desenvolvimento da linguagem no cérebro e abordar a possibilidade de predição de resultados de linguagem. Fontes: Estudos recentes serão discutidos em face das evidências geradas pela predição de resultados de linguagem e pelo uso de novos métodos de análise de dados cerebrais. Resumo dos dados: Este relato de comportamento cerebral abordará: (1) o desenvolvimento de um circuito cerebral de linguagem falada; (2) a adaptação neural que segue a instrução da leitura e incentiva a “inserção” de áreas de processamento visual do cérebro no circuito de linguagem falada; e (3) a predição do desenvolvimento da linguagem e a possibilidade de uma neurociência translacional. Conclusões: As imagens cerebrais permitiram a identificação de índices neurais (neuromarcadores) que refletem o desenvolvimento da linguagem típico e atípico; surge a possibilidade de prever o risco de disfunções de linguagem. A responsabilidade de desenvolver uma ligação entre neurociência e resultados relacionados a saúde e cognição pode abrir o caminho para a neurociência translacional.

ABSTRACT Objectives: The goal of this article is to provide an account of language development in the brain using the new information about brain function gleaned from cognitive neuroscience. By addressing the evidence obtained from non-invasive brain imaging in the light of prediction, this account goes beyond describing the association between language and specific brain areas to advocate the importance and possibility of predicting language outcomes using brain-imaging data. The goal is to address the current evidence about language development in the brain and the possibility of prediction of language outcomes. Sources: Recent studies will be discussed in the light of the evidence generated for predicting language outcomes and using new methods of analysis of brain data. Summary of the data: The present account of brain behavior will address: (1) the development of a hardwired brain circuit for spoken language; (2) the neural adaptation that follows reading instruction and fosters the “grafting” of visual processing areas of the brain onto the hardwired circuit of spoken language; and (3) the prediction of language development and the possibility of translational neuroscience. Conclusions: Brain imaging has allowed for the identification of neural indices (neuromarkers) that reflect typical and atypical language development; the possibility of predicting risk for language disorders has emerged. A mandate to develop a bridge between neuroscience and health and cognition-related outcomes may pave the way for translational neuroscience.

Seis artigos que combinam o estudo de bilíngües e técnicas de neuroimagem são discutidos. O objetivo, em suma, é buscar uma contribuição de estudos de neuroimagem para o entendimento do que se passa no cérebro de bilíngües ao utilizarem duas línguas, e como essas línguas se comportam em relação às áreas de ativação do cérebro. Estudos mostram que ao atingir um nível elevado de proficiência na segunda língua, ambas as línguas utilizadas ativam áreas semelhantes no cérebro, o que indica, por sua vez, que a segunda língua passa a fazer parte do conhecimento procedimental, ou automatizado.

Six articles combining the study of bilinguals and neuroimaging techniques are discussed. The objective is to seek for contributions from neuroimaging studies for the understanding of what goes on in the bilingual brain that processes two languages, and of what goes on, comparatively, in terms of brain activation of each language. Studies show that highly proficient bilinguals activate the same areas in the brain for both the first and second languages. This indicates that the second language becomes part of the speaker's procedural knowledge.